Chinese Spirit-Medium Possession

Exploring Ritual and Religion in the Photographic Archives of Alan J. A. Elliott

Gemma Ovens

Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge

Please be aware that this exhibition has graphic photographs of violence and self-harm.

Dang-ki (tang-ki, spirit medium) performance dedicated to 齊天大聖 (Ch'i-t'ien Ta-sheng or qi tian da sheng, 'Great Saint Equal with Heaven' (commonly transcribed as the 'Monkey God'), on Keng Cheow Street, Singapore. MAA P.62655.ELT.

HOW DO ANTHROPOLOGISTS DOCUMENT THE SUBLIME?

A new digitisation project at MAA gives a glimpse into the supernatural world of spirit-mediumship in Singapore.

Last August, I joined MAA as a Collections Assistant to work on the digital repatriation of analogue photographs from Southeast Asia to the National Library Board of Singapore (NLB). In my first few weeks, I came across this photograph: a dizzying image of two boys spinning in a trance-like state, completely detached from the crowd of onlookers. The neck of the boy on the left hangs limp; his body is unsettlingly contorted; eyes rolling backwards, hair glistening with sweat. The other boy grips his sinewy arms tightly by the wrists. I was instantly intrigued.

Inside a temple a young man holds the wrists of a second young man, dressed in loose trousers and a stomacher, who appears to be in a trance state. Onlookers watch from outside the temple.

'The dang-ki's whole body sways and his head begins spinning round in circles.' Elliott, J. A. MAA P.62786.ELT.

The project was first initiated in 2018 by Luke Chua of NLB, in collaboration with Dr Jocelyne Dudding, Manager of the Photograph Collections at MAA, and Dr Eona Bell, an Affiliated Lecturer in Social Anthropology at the University of Cambridge. It is a continuation of the work and commitment by MAA to share historical and ethnographic photographs with their source and related academic communities. On the project’s completion in March 2023, we successfully delivered to the NLB, 7,493 high resolution photographs and 16 archives (14,183 digital files) to be shared via their collections portal, as well as Excel and PDF documents of the related records.

Central to this project was the digital sharing of approximately 2,000 ethnographic photographs of Chinese temples and ritual practices in Singapore. These photographs were either made or collected by British anthropologist Alan J. A. Elliott for his seminal book Chinese Spirit-Medium Cults in Singapore (Athlone Press, 1955). The broader collection also includes a range of historically and culturally significant photographs from Southeast Asia made by Ivor Evans, Alfred Haddon, William Skeat, and James Hornell.

A man is standing in front of an entrance gateway with a European woman, a Chinese woman, and a Chinese monk. A sign in Chinese, above the open double gate reads: 'Buddhism for humanity'.

Alan Elliott and his wife Muriel with a Chinese woman and monk at the Guan Tong Monastery. Elliott, J. A. MAA N.62112.ELT.

WHAT IS A SPIRIT-MEDIUM CULT?

Spirit-medium cults (now known as spirit-mediums and their devotees) are groups of Chinese Singaporeans who practise specific religious rites and ceremonies at predetermined locations to communicate with spirits and ancestors. These ceremonies enable powerful deities to enter the body of a tang-ki or dang-ki (spirit-medium) thereby revealing supernatural channels of communication with the devotees. These congregations of devotees are often impermanent and springing up overnight, while others have an established connection to a local temple.

Since the 1955 publication of Elliott's Spirit-Medium Cults in Singapore, the term ‘cult’ has become imbued with negative connotations. However, Elliott’s use of the term is perhaps more aligned with the older sense of the word ‘cult’ (from the Latin cultus), meaning the care owed to deities and temples embodied through ritual and ceremony.

In the porch are a number of people, and a painted sign balancing on benches. The temple has a thatch roof, painted figures and scenes over the porch.

View of the porch of a temple in Singapore used for 齊天大聖 (qi tian da sheng, 'Great Saint Equal with Heaven) ceremony. MAA N.53885.ELT.

In Elliott’s work, ‘cult’ is used to distinguish these groups from orthodox Daoist or Buddhist religions, emphasising the ephemeral, spontaneous nature of these organisations, their inherited oral mythologies, and the mystical aspects of the tang-ki as a deity incarnate. He writes:

'A spirit-medium cult postulates the existence of spiritual forces which can enter a human medium and motivate him to behaviour other than which he expresses in his normal personality. The rites of the cult, therefore, are aimed predominantly at producing such a state in the dang-ki, and at communicating with the spiritual forces that are thereby being revealed to worshippers.'

My colleague, Dr Eona Bell, who has been researching Elliott’s photographs while cataloguing the collection, shared some fascinating insights into the images as we progressed with the project.

Elaborately carved wooden structure over the offering table houses the figure of an eight-armed deity, probably Guan Yin.

Spirit-medium performance at a Chinese temple at Race Course Road, Singapore [Elliott's listing], possibly Fuk Shan T'ang or Hock Siew Tong. MAA N.54175.ELT.

I discovered that the boy in the photograph is training to become initiated as tang-ki. A tang-ki, (translated from Hokkien as ‘youth diviner’ or ‘divining youth’) is a person believed to have been chosen by a particular shen (spirit deity) as the earthly vehicle for divine expression.

'The dang-ki's whole body sways and his head begins spinning round in circles.' Elliott, J. A. MAA P.62786.ELT.

As part of an invocation ceremony, the tang-ki will enter a powerful trance state as their body involuntarily becomes possessed by the shen.

The tang-ki will usually be helped by several assistants, who will play a leading role in the invocation ceremony and support the tang-ki's body during the trance.

A woman kneels before a spirit-medium, at the entrance porch of a Chinese temple in Singapore

A woman kneels before an older tang-ki outside a temple. MAA P.62556.ELT.

A type of Chinese popular religion, inextricably linked with Daoism, is practised locally in spirit-mediumship throughout the Chinese population of Singapore, and particularly amongst Hokkien language speakers. In Daoist philosophy there is an understanding that all living creatures should live in harmony with the universe and the energy which flows within it. The customary beliefs of Chinese popular religion incorporate the worship of shen and shamanic practices. In Hokkien culture, spirit-mediumship plays a key role in society as it creates a channel for supernatural powers to influence earthly concerns, and providing healing and spiritual guidance to individuals seeking help.

Elliott documented these local practices at a time when Singapore was still under British colonial rule, recovering from Japanese occupation during WWII and its riotous fallout. Between 1942-1945 the Japanese army had imposed extreme measures against locals, with troops particularly ruthless in dealing with the Chinese population.

At a time of social unrest, in a nation on the cusp of major socio-political changes and modernisation, perhaps people especially looked to spirit-mediums as a protection against malevolent forces.

THE DIVINING YOUTH

I was surprised by the young age of some of the tang-ki, particularly as the rituals depicted in the images began to take a more brutal turn. The initiation ceremonies of these trainees appear filled with acts of self-inflicted pain. Was there a significance in how, or why certain tang-ki were selected?

Elliott writes that young people are considered more likely candidates to become mediums — particularly those with 'light’ horoscopes (meaning their eight characters, determined from the year, month, day, and hour of birth do not carry an appropriate weighting of the more stable elements). He states, 'such people are expected to lead blameless but unhappy lives and die young'. Margaret Chan, a professor of performance studies, adds 'they can prolong their lifespan by agreeing to serve the gods ... As spirit-mediums are only “half-filled,” they have “space” for spirits and deities to enter and take control of their bodies'.

A group of young spirit mediums in white trousers are at the foot of a sword bridge, of which only the lower ladder is visible. On the right, one medium has fainted in the arms of another. In the foreground is a table with incense sticks, candles and a basket. On the left, another medium in a dark apron leans forward to reach for a sword.

A young tang-ki during an initiation ceremony. MAA N.54367.ELT.

SELF-MORTIFICATION

Throughout the photographs, there are many examples of what Elliott refers to as ‘self-mortification’ practices where the possessed tang-ki inflicts specific injury upon himself.

A young tang-ki pierces his tongue with a sword. MAA N.54182.ELT.

In some images we see the tang-ki stick spikes through his cheeks and back and cut his tongue open with a long sword.

The act of theatrically sawing through the tongue whilst drums and gongs are beaten furiously, is performed until the tang-ki is satisfied that he has drawn enough blood to lick hundreds of charm papers to be distributed to the devotees.

Inside a Chinese temple, the spirit-medium, a boy, leans forward dripping blood from his tongue onto a charm paper held by an assistant. More papers lie on the offering table in front of him. In the foreground is an older woman wearing a white blouse and sash over her left shoulder. A group of onlookers are in the background.

A tang-ki dropping his blood on charm papers for his devotees. MAA N.54185.ELT.

In a street, in front of a wooden stall with thatch roof, an older man wearing a shirt and trousers, supports a young man as he hits his bare back with a ball of spikes. A group of men, women and children watch from the roadside.

Novice tang-ki flails his back with a ‘prick ball,’ helped by his assistant. MAA N.54124.ELT.

In the image beside we see a young tang-ki (with help from an assistant) whack his back with a ‘prick-ball’, a large ball of metal spikes, attached to a handle and chain.

Other extreme rituals involve walking across ‘sword ladders’ (high, tightrope style ladders made from sharp metal rungs), sitting on 'sword chairs’ (chairs of metal spikes), rolling across ‘knife beds,’ and extinguishing handfuls of lit incense by mouth.

A medium in white trousers and vests stands at the top of an open-air sword bridge, while two more men climb the right-hand ladder. Onlookers watch from the ground.

Crossing a ‘sword ladder’ made of blades during a tang-ki initiation ceremony. MAA P.62707.ELT.

A young man wearing a white vest and trousers sits on a "spike chair" holding a bowl to his lips. Two older men assist, one holding a spike piercing his lip. A large crowd watches.

Sitting on a ‘spike-chair’, the tang-ki holds a cup to collect blood as an assistant helps pierce his tongue. MAA N.54724.ELT.

An assistant supports the shoulders of a dang-ki spirit medium, an older man wearing cloth headdress and loose trousers, who is lying supine on a bed of blades.

A tang-ki rolls across a ‘knife-bed’ supported by an assistant. MAA N.54034.ELT.

The spirit medium, an older man, has his face painted and wears a headdress and apron with silk trousers. He is holding a bundle of burning incense sticks to his tongue while standing with knees bent in front of a doorway with participants and spectators gathered behind. A man playing a drum is to the left.

During a ceremony of the ‘Monkey God,’ an older tang-ki extinguishes burning incense on his tongue. MAA N.53894.ELT.

A hooded man stands with his short torn and chest bare, with blood all over his clothes and body. Behind him are a group of more hooded men.

Battenti in Guardia Sanframondi use pads of sharp spikes to beat their chests. Source: Salvatore de Rosa.

The endurance of self-mortification is commonly used in shamanic practices around the world to heighten spiritual power and transformation. Similarly, in Christianity, ceremonies such as the Rites of Penance in Campania, Italy, involve parades of hooded men known as ‘battenti’, striking their bloodied chests with pads full of metal spikes. The devotional practice of self-flagellation is seen as an act of spiritual purification and devoutness.

The physical endurance of pain and bloodshed is visible throughout Elliott’s photographs – yet the faces of the novice tang-ki, rarely show distress; to be an initiated tang-ki is to no show pain or fear.

The spirit-medium applies make-up or greasepaint. An older man wearing a cloth apron, he is standing at an open window with a second man behind him.

A tang-ki gets ready to perform an exorcism of a private house in Singapore. MAA N.54552.ELT.

Margaret Chan proposes that tang-ki worship is like ritual theatre; the mediums use costumes, make-up, and props to theatrically take on the roles of gods. The spectator must suspend disbelief and accept the performance as a divine manifestation—a transformation of a mortal into a god. She writes:

'The concept is one of transmogrification, not mere spirit possession and devotees believe that the tang-ki is truly a god in the flesh. In tang-ki worship the very act of theatre is a rite of incarnation where ritual is theatre, theatre is ritual'.

The Dang-ki, an older woman, wears a white five-pointed headdress and white robe. She is standing on an offering table holding a wooden staff or key horizontally across her body. In her right hand she holds up a glass of water. On the left, a man stands with hands on the table looking up at the Dang-ki.

A female tang-ki wearing a five-pointed crown, holding a glass of water and a staff during the ‘Hungry Ghost’ festival. MAA N.53918.ELT.

SPEAKING IN TONGUES

The final stage of the spirit-medium's performance is focused upon ‘personal consultations’ with worshippers involving often lengthy verbal deliberations—vocalising divine wisdom to the worshippers through ‘speaking in tongues.’ In these instances, the tang-ki will speak unintelligibly in high pitched, artificial voice or mutter ‘shen language’ incoherently in such a way that can only be understood through translation by his assistant.

The phrase ‘speaking in tongues’ (also known in western theory as glossolalia or ‘ecstatic vocalisation’), is a phenomenon in which the speaker utters incomprehensible words or speech-like syllables in an unknown language. In the context of religious practice (especially in Pentecostal and charismatic Christianity) it is believed to be a divine language unknown even to the speaker themself. Variations of ‘speaking in tongues’ appear throughout eastern and western cultures, but particularly seen in shamanic rituals where trance states are integral to facilitating communication with a deeper knowledge of a spiritual nature.

The spirit-medium, a young man with dark hair, wearing a white apron and silk stomacher, gestures with his hands as he looks down at a charm paper on the wooden offering table in front of him. Beside him is an older man in a white t-shirt, a young man and an older woman in a white blouse. On the table are lighted candles and incense sticks, bowls of incense and further charm papers.

A possessed tang-ki during a consultation. MAA N.54179.ELT.

The an older spirit medium has his face painted and wears a collar and silk trousers. He is standing at the front with knees slightly bent, probably in a trance state with his eyes closed. On his left and right, younger men (cropped by the frame on the right) support his arms. A small group of onlookers stand behind the medium.

After consultations, the tang-ki gives a signal that the shen is going to ‘return.’ He does a leap into the air and is caught by an assistant and lowered into the dragon chair. MAA N.53904.ELT.

Ethnographic work that documents religious and supernatural experiences can pose a challenge—inner worlds of semi-consciousness and the sublime are not easy to record!

Although Elliott photographs the physical and performative elements of spirit-medium possession, we must use our imagination to consider the transcendental journey of the possessed tang-ki and the mesmerised devotion of his followers. Since digitising the collection, Elliott’s photographs are now available online for viewers to explore the unique and distinctive rituals of the tang-ki, yet, how unique are these practices?

It is not only Chinese spirit-mediums who ‘speak in tongues’ whilst receiving divine messages; this mystical phenomenon appears in different guises across many religions, as does self-mortification, ecstatic trance, and many more. Vastly disparate communities share remarkably similar rituals that all have a common ground—the need to connect with a higher power. A supernatural coincidence, or a pattern of human nature?

Rituals create a sense of continuity and belonging; they are a way of making sense of the universe and our own mortality. Elliott’s photographs do not question or judge these beliefs, they reflect the moment—a vivid glimpse into 20^th century Singaporean spirit-medium possession.

The dang-ki, a young man wears light-coloured trousers. Two of his assistants wear white shirts and shorts, a third wears white shirt and dark trousers, the fourth a white vest and trousers.

An exhausted looking tang-ki and his assistants after a performance at a Chinese temple on Balestier road, Singapore. MAA N.54017.ELT.