The Namboothiris and Nairs of 20th Century Kerala
As seen through the lens of L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer
Between 1901 and 1914, the Indian anthropologist L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer embarked on what would become one of the largest ethnographic surveys of India’s south-western coast. In this period, Iyer produced over 150 photographs for his two-part series titled "Cochin Tribes and Castes".
The ways of life portrayed in Iyer's photographs began to disappear shortly after they were captured, as Kerala entered a new era of rapid socioeconomic and technological development following independence. This rapid obsolescence, which began in the mid-20th century, has made documenting the contents and context of historical images of the state increasingly challenging.
Today, there remains one last generation of Malayalis who have first-hand experience of the life represented in Iyer's photographs. During my doctoral fieldwork in Kerala, I worked with an aged community of Nair and Namboothiri families to further illustrate L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer's photographs. Many of these images were never published or fully documented in the Tribes and Castes series.
This exhibition offers a glimpse into the material culture, customs, and ways of life of the Namboothiri and Nair people at the turn of the 20th century.
L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer
Lakshminarayanapuram Krishna (L. K.) Ananthakrishna Iyer (1861–1937) was a Malayali anthropologist from the Palakkad region of the modern day state of Kerala—then known as Palghat, situated in the Princely State of Cochin.
Between 1901 and 1914, Iyer was appointed by the Dewan of Cochin to act as the state's superintendent of ethnography.
In this period, Iyer produced his revolutionary study of the people of Cochin, Travancore, and Mysore to contribute towards the nationwide ethnographic survey of British India (initiated in 1901) that was administered by Sir Herbert Risley.
Iyer frequently collaborated with the anthropologists of adjacent South Indian presidencies. However, unlike his contemporaries, Iyer's photographs broke from the prevailing norms of anthropological illustration. His images rejected the phrenological gaze of the era, choosing instead to capture his subjects in natural, relaxed poses within the context of their daily lives, family activities, homes, temples, and festivals.
Photograph of Iyer from C. R. N. Dewan Bahadur Dr. L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. (1861–1937.). Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 5, 341–346 (1937). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03048195
Namboothiri girls pose with their ornaments. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36563.ACH2.
Namboothiri girls pose with their ornaments. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36563.ACH2.
Tribes and Castes Vol. I
In 1908, Iyer published the first volume of Cochin Tribes and Castes. A highly detailed anthology of monographs produced for the Cochin government, this volume foregrounded customs and traditions of indigenous coast, hill, and jungle dwelling groups of lower social status within India's caste system such as the Pullayas, Pullavans, Izhavas, and Janiyans. Volume I also introduced the lives of Kerala's artisanal groups to anthropological discourse.
This foundational work in Indian anthropology was one of the first of its kind to highlight challenges and social stigmas faced by these communities.
Tribes and Castes Vol. II
In 1912, Iyer published the second volume of Cochin Tribes and Castes. In this, he argued that the higher social-ranking groups and non-Hindu people of Cochin must also be of ethnographic interest to anthropologists.
Volume II provides a comprehensive account of the lifestyles and evolving social customs of aristocratic and priestly communities. It also covered the lives of the converted Christian, Muslim, and Jewish Malayalis. This book introduced the Jonaka Mapillas (Kerala muslims), Romo-Syrian Christians, the White Jews of Cochin, the Ambalavasis, the Nairs, and the Namboothiris.
A Pulaya family near their mud and thatched roof hut. Emancipated slaves and then agricultural labourers by occupation, the Pulayas worked from plot to plot for the higher-caste communities and lived in portable shelters in close proximity to paddy fields. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.60783.HUT.
A Pulaya family near their mud and thatched roof hut. Emancipated slaves and then agricultural labourers by occupation, the Pulayas worked from plot to plot for the higher-caste communities and lived in portable shelters in close proximity to paddy fields. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.60783.HUT.
While Iyer's interest lay primarily in religion, inheritance, and marriage customs, he also documented social reforms occurring within both marginalised groups such as the Pulayas, Izhuvans, and Mukkuvas, and in those with higher social precedence such as the Namboothiris and Nairs. The Tribes and Castes series challenged the established colonial and ethnographic portrayal of Indian society, the caste system, and its social divisions as stagnated.
Ananthakrishna Iyer frequented the University of Cambridge and the Pitt-Rivers Museum in Oxford to lecture on South Indian ethnology. It is on these trips that he likely met anthropologist Alfred C. Haddon, who wrote the introduction to Tribes and Castes Vol. II. Iyer was also in close correspondence with John Henry Hutton, who became the Census Commissioner of India in 1930.
At MAA, Iyer's photographs are catalogued under both the Haddon Collection and the Hutton Collection. It is possible that the museum's acquisition of these images is a result of Iyer personally sending them to Hutton and Haddon.
MAA cares for approximately 100 of Iyer's photographs. Within this collection, around 40 portray the lives of the Namboothiri and Nair communities of early 20th century Kerala.
The Namboothiris
The Caste of The Divine
The Namboothiris* or Kerala Brahmins formed a priestly, elite, and feudalistic community that occupied the highest position in the order of social precedence in pre-21st century Kerala.
Namboothiris attribute their origin to the Hindu mythological figure Parasurama, whose victory in divine battle gave him claim to raise Kerala from the sea. To administer this new strip of land, he brought Brahmins from northern India, ordained them, and introduced them to Kerala to form the landed aristocracy.
*also spelled as Nambudiri, Nambuthiri, and Namboodiri
A group of Namboothiris posing in front of the Peruvanam Mahadeva Shiva Temple. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. The Cochin Tribes and Castes, Volume II.
A group of Namboothiris posing in front of the Peruvanam Mahadeva Shiva Temple. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. The Cochin Tribes and Castes, Volume II.
Arzhuvancherry Thampurákkals pose in front of the railed paththayappura (annexe) of an illam (Namboothiri estate). A young Namboothiri girl watches from behind them. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36565.ACH2.
Arzhuvancherry Thampurákkals pose in front of the railed paththayappura (annexe) of an illam (Namboothiri estate). A young Namboothiri girl watches from behind them. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36565.ACH2.
Iyer writes about the etymology of "Namboothiri", from which derives nam (knowledge) and purikka (to impart), alluding to the community's characteristic trait of expertise in Vēdic scholarship.
Not all Namboothiris engaged in priesthood, as this was reserved for certain sub-divisions within the caste. Nonetheless, each sub-division had strict principles for life that emphasized piety. Derailing from these social customs warranted expulsion from the family and village, and stripped the Namboothiri of their title and social privileges.
Namboothiris, assigned by Parasurama as divine authorities to oversee all spiritual and esoteric matters, were seen by all Malayali people as "the holiest of human beings".
Parasurama formed six sub-divisions of Namboothiris on the basis of Vēdic learning, socio-religious merits, and occupations which ranged from royal advisors to surgeons.
(i) Thampurákkals
Translating to "emperor", the Thampurákkals (by birthright) had socio-religious sovereignty and lordship over all other Namboothiris. They also had the chief seat in any assembly, and thus did not engage in other professions.
(iv) Sámanyas
A scholarly community who dedicated their lives to studying the vēdas, performing religious services in temples, and practising mantra vàdám (magic).
(ii) Adhyans
Addressed by the Nambuthiripad title. Parasurama gave Adhyans the highest privilege of becoming the ruling priests of Kerala's most significant temples.
(v) Játimatrás
Directed by Parasurama to become experts in medicine, this community abandoned the pursuit of Vēdic scholarship to specialise in surgery and ayurveda.
(iii) Vishista Namboothiris
A group of ritualistic experts, learners of the sciences and vēdas, philosophers, and spiritual teachers. They became heads of Kerala's Vēdic schools.
(vi) Sapagrasthas
A group that is prohibited from the pursuit of Vēdic study, priesthood, and association with other Namboothiris as a consequence of their ancestors questioning Parasurama's sanctitude and authority.
Namboothiris abided by the Āśrama system of life stages, each with their set of holy laws. Based off these laws were guidelines for daily activities, architecture, dressing styles, and adornments.
It is mainly male Namboothiris that adhered to Āśrama.
Antharjanams
Namboothiri women were called antharjanams, from which derives anthar (inside) and janam (people). They would also endearingly be called amma (mother), even at a young age.
Unlike the men, antharjanams were confined to their residences and barred from participating in social events. Namboothiri estates contained secluded areas for women to bathe and socialize, away from the sight of visitors.
In Iyer's photographic collection, this is the only image of an adult or teenaged Namboothiri woman, who is seen holding a marrakuda. On the occasion that antharjanams could leave their houses, they would carry the marrakuda to cover themselves against the gaze of those passing by. Nair servants would walk ahead of Namboothiri women to announce the antharjanam's arrival. Men and members of the lower-castes were to vacate her path at once and not look at her.
Namboothiri girls would be married shortly before and after puberty, and had little choice in the selection of their husband. As the Namboothiris were endogamous and patrilineal, the bride would leave her house to live in the estate of the groom. Here, her primary role was to raise a family. She would not be allowed to interact with the world outside.
The woman in this photograph can be identified as a married woman by the small thali that is presented to her during nuptial rites. Underneath this ornament is the three-tiered moonizhamani, which is worn on the occasion of attending a puthari karmam.
A modern style of the gold moonizhamani fitted with a diamond pendant. The necklace is no longer exclusive to the Namboothiri caste in modern Kerala. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon, at Thottan Jewellers in Thrissur. 2025
A modern style of the gold moonizhamani fitted with a diamond pendant. The necklace is no longer exclusive to the Namboothiri caste in modern Kerala. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon, at Thottan Jewellers in Thrissur. 2025
This antharjanam was likely from an affluent Namboothiri sub-division, such as Adhyan or Thampurákkal. Affluent Namboothiri women wore more jewellery—like the wide kazhutilla across her chest—than those of lower sub-divisions.
A gold kazhutilla fitted with rubies. Its design can represent leaves or snake hoods. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon, at Thottan Jewellers in Thrissur. 2025
A gold kazhutilla fitted with rubies. Its design can represent leaves or snake hoods. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon, at Thottan Jewellers in Thrissur. 2025
Antharjanam (a Namboothiri woman) poses with her marrakuda umbrella in front of her house. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36567.ACH2.
Spirituality and Jewellery
Despite sub-division, most Namboothiri girls as young as two years old wore the same type of ornaments. These pieces would be hand-crafted by commissioned local artisans. Next, priests would consecrate the articles to serve as apotropaic charms. The Namboothiris only wore jewellery made out of materials they believed could be charged with divine essence. These included silver, gold, gemstones, and bell metal.
Namboothiri girls pose in front of the Peruvanam Mahadeva Temple. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36570.ACH2
The Mukkolakkallu necklace, named after the goddess at the Mukkuthala temple, was the most significant ornament for young girls. It consisted of hollowed gold containers with specks of quartz obtained from the idol of the goddess. Embedded with the protective agency and essence of the deity, the Namboothiris believed that this necklace could prevent girls from being affected by the evil eye, malignant spirits, and debilitating ailments.
The necklace would be replaced by the thali upon marriage to a Namboothiri boy who has completed his Upanāyana coming-of-age ceremony, and thus achieved a form of divine authority himself.
A modern kuzhalmothiram. The necklace has become lighter in weight in its contemporary form, but still retains the tubular drum like kuzhal shape which is completed with a pendant. It is no longer worn for tradition but for ornamental purposes. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon, at Thottan Jewellers in Thrissur. 2025
A modern kuzhalmothiram. The necklace has become lighter in weight in its contemporary form, but still retains the tubular drum like kuzhal shape which is completed with a pendant. It is no longer worn for tradition but for ornamental purposes. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon, at Thottan Jewellers in Thrissur. 2025
Other daily-wear ornaments (though without as much spiritual significance) included the kuzhalmothiram and the kingini mala—the latter of which has become difficult to find in modern Namboothiri households. On the waist, they wear the arapattam—a belt made of gold, silver, or brass.
The Chittu
Namboothiri girls undergo Kāthukuttu (ear-boring) during infancy or around the same time as chowlam—which occurs between the ages of five and eight. The pierced ear was gradually made to expand with different sizes of plugs, worn in succession, until it would be large enough to accommodate the chittu.
The Upanāyana
The Upanāyana is a coming-of-age initiation of a young community member into a Namboothiri man. Conducted between the ages of 7 and 10, the Upanāyana is colloquially called the "holy thread ceremony".
The consecration of a sacred cotton thread on the body by a spiritual preceptor is a necessary pre-requisite for Namboothiri men to pursue marriage, domestic life, and priesthood. The Upanāyana marks the transition into the Brahmacharya (studentship) stage of life for Kerala Brahmins.
A guru and pupils reciting chants at the Brahmaswam Madham Vēdic school in Thrissur. Photograph by Vijay Nanda. March 2015.
A guru and pupils reciting chants at the Brahmaswam Madham Vēdic school in Thrissur. Photograph by Vijay Nanda. March 2015.
Once in the Brahmacharya stage of life, young boys receive regular spiritual guidance and training in Vēdic scholarship from their Adhyan and Vishista Namboothiri gurus. In the early 20th century, maxims of conduct given to Brahmacharya pupils included limited interaction with those aside from teachers and contemporaries, and devoting their full attention to Vēdic studies. Boys must abstain from music, dancing, decorative adornments, gambling, and vices. They must exhibit kindness towards all things alive, and cultivate humility by learning to provide for oneself—which included begging for victuals using a bhikṣāpātram.
After the Upanāyana, the young scholar wore a gold pavitram ring as a locket. At the completion of his Brahmacharya stage (between the ages of 15 and 20), he underwent the transitional Samavarthanam ceremony.
The pavitram would then be transferred to the right ring finger. This gesture indicated the completion of his studentship and beginning of Grihastha (domestic life).
During the period of studentship, pupils abstained from all kinds of clothing except for the poonol, which was fastened to the krishnajinam, a cross-body belt created from antelope leather.
On the waist, boys wore only a cotton loincloth and the mekhalam, a thin girdle woven from munja (sugarcane grass).
The simplicity of clothing in the Brahmacharya stage was part of training young Namboothiris to cultivate detachment to a materialistic life.
A dandu staff (made of peepal bark) handed over during the Upanāyana symbolises the responsibility and oath of adhering to the path of Brahmanic life.
Gurukulams and
Vēdic Schools
Namboothiris valued oral tradition. Residential institutions were constructed throughout Kerala for the methodical study of Vēdic texts through a system of preceptor-disciple led oral education (Gurukulam).
The 400 year old Vadakke Madham (also known as the Brahmaswam Madham) was one of the two major Vēdic schools that Namboothiris sent their children to. The students of this Madham represented the Cochin kingdom in scholarly competitions of oral recitation against the pupils of its sister school in Travancore.
Brahmaswam Madham in Thrissur. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. The Cochin Tribes and Castes, Volume II.
Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. The Cochin Tribes and Castes, Volume II.
Students with their guru are photographed by Iyer at the base of the Madham's staircase, which leads into a sacred pond where inhabitants perform ablutions. The subjects in Iyer's photographs were all students and instructors at the Vadakke Madham.
The Brahmaswam Madham in Thrissur. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36604.
Vēdic students with their guru, likely taken at a Madham. The students have finished their Samavarthanam (transition to domestic life) as they are not wearing the strip of antelope leather. They no longer wear the loin cloth, and instead are clothed in the cotton randaam mundu towel, which is draped over their shoulders. The pavitram ring is now on the ring finger of their right hand, rather than around their necks as a locket. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36561.ACH2
Vēdic students with their guru, likely taken at a Madham. The students have finished their Samavarthanam (transition to domestic life) as they are not wearing the strip of antelope leather. They no longer wear the loin cloth, and instead are clothed in the cotton randaam mundu towel, which is draped over their shoulders. The pavitram ring is now on the ring finger of their right hand, rather than around their necks as a locket. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36561.ACH2
A minimalistic lifestyle was crucial to both graduates who wished to pursue domestic life and priesthood.
Especially for those taking up the latter, only materials that facilitated spiritual communication could be adorned. Additionally, these items helped clarify the sub-division, occupation, stage of life, and marital status of Namboothiri men without the need to communicate (especially due to concerns of spiritual pollution).
Adhyan Namboothiris (a priestly sub-division) posing inside a temple. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36564.ACH2
In this group of men, the melshantikaran (head-priest) is identified by the ash caste-marks on his chest, the rudraaksham neck ornament, and a forward facing kuduma.
On the right hand is the sacred pavitram ring, a necessity for any Namboothiri who wished to perform sacred ceremonies.
A Pavitrakettu Mala. Today, the pavitram largely refers to a disposable ring crafted out of dharba grass that is worn during ceremonies. The original pavitram ring (no longer worn with the same frequency as it was in the 20th century) had a shape similar to that of the number "8" carved into it, which has since been adapted into the pavitrakettu mala necklace for women. Despite its Namboothiri origins, this necklace is not exclusive to specific castes. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon, at Thottan Jewellers in Thrissur. 2025
A Pavitrakettu Mala. Today, the pavitram largely refers to a disposable ring crafted out of dharba grass that is worn during ceremonies. The original pavitram ring (no longer worn with the same frequency as it was in the 20th century) had a shape similar to that of the number "8" carved into it, which has since been adapted into the pavitrakettu mala necklace for women. Despite its Namboothiri origins, this necklace is not exclusive to specific castes. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon, at Thottan Jewellers in Thrissur. 2025
A pavitram ring crafted out of dharba grass, worn by Namboothiri priests during rituals, which is later disposed of by releasing the ring into a body of water. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025
A pavitram ring crafted out of dharba grass, worn by Namboothiri priests during rituals, which is later disposed of by releasing the ring into a body of water. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025
Namboothiris men, including many modern Namboothiris, continue to wear a thin line of holy thread called the poonol.
Worn for the entirety of one's life after the Upanāyana, the sacred thread renders a Namboothiri man as eligible for divine duties and temple-life.
Namboothiris as Keepers of kṣētraṁs
For a large part of Kerala's history, Namboothiris were the only caste allowed to administer kshetrams (temples). Namboothiris higher up in sub-division became priests, and enjoyed privileges on temple grounds such as regular meals and exclusive access to festivities—which were cooked and organised by those who ranked below in the same caste. As the keepers of temples by divine birthright (given by Parasurama), Namboothiris spent much of their lives within temples.
A typical day for a Namboothiri man involved rising before dawn, performing ablutions and prayers, then heading to a nearby temple to engage in Puranic recitations (if not involved in priesthood). In the noon, he would be fed in the temple's dining hall, enjoy a performance or sing hymns, then return home before nightfall. Head priests were expected to leave the premises last.
This photograph features a Mariyamman shrine for the goddess Mariyamman, who is worshipped in parts of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. While this image likely features the Tamil Brahmins, it illustrates a kovil that is also found in the homes of Namboothiris and Nairs. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36600.
This photograph features a Mariyamman shrine for the goddess Mariyamman, who is worshipped in parts of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. While this image likely features the Tamil Brahmins, it illustrates a kovil that is also found in the homes of Namboothiris and Nairs. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36600.
Gopuram of the Thiruvanchikulam temple in Kodungallur, Thrissur. The Gopuram is an architectural element of many South Indian temples that forms the entrance to the site. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36611.
Gopuram of the Thiruvanchikulam temple in Kodungallur, Thrissur. The Gopuram is an architectural element of many South Indian temples that forms the entrance to the site. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36611.
Namboothiri priests were also hired by Nair families for their spiritual services. Many Nair properties had segregated housing with dedicated ponds for Namboothiris, in abidance to pollution laws. On Nair property, priests would propitiate the local elementals of the land and perform a variety of rituals to appease the deities of the host's family kovil (shrine). Many South Indian Brahmins, especially Tamil Brahmins, had kovils of their own on their property. However, the proximity of Namboothiri settlements in Cochin to the oldest and grandest temples of Kerala, made them favoured sites for daily visit in the 20th century.
A Namboothiri priest performs a ritual for a Nair family's Nāga (serpent) shrine. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
A Namboothiri priest performs a ritual for a Nair family's Nāga (serpent) shrine. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
While performing sacred duties, the Namboothiri priest always sits on a wooden tortoise shaped ammana palakka. Contact with the seat prevents spiritual energy cultivated during the ritual from being dispersed into the earth. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
While performing sacred duties, the Namboothiri priest always sits on a wooden tortoise shaped ammana palakka. Contact with the seat prevents spiritual energy cultivated during the ritual from being dispersed into the earth. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Temples form the backdrop for Namboothiri subjects in many of Iyer's photographs, like in this image of young girls at the Peruvanam Mahadeva Shiva Temple
Young Namboothiri girls standing in front of the Peruvanam Mahadeva temple. In Vol. II, Iyer presents this image to illustrate the girls' jewellery. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36568.ACH2.
Young Namboothiri girls standing in front of the Peruvanam Mahadeva temple. In Vol. II, Iyer presents this image to illustrate the girls' jewellery. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36568.ACH2.
Panniyur Sri Varahamurthy kshetram, devoted to the Varaha or boar-like avatar of the deity Vishnu. In this temple, devotees often pay homage to and pray for the fulfilment of requests related to earth, soil, and land. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36609.
Namboothiris had exclusive spaces within temples where they could perform their namaskarams (prostrations) and japams (meditations). They had agrasalas (dining halls) in which they would be fed.
At the turn of the 20th century, only Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Ambalavasis and other high-caste members could enter the nalamballam. Castes lower in the social order could only come as far as the exterior of this structure.
A namasakara mandapam (raised platform for Namboothiris to conduct rites and recitations) in front of the Durga shrine inside the Thiruvanchikulam Mahadeva Kshetram. A shrine for the forest deity Subramanyan is visible in the background. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36603.
Side view of The Panniyur Sri Varahamurthy Temple. The large stone structure visible to the right of the shrines is no longer present. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36605.
Kodungallur Bhagavathy Temple, where a form of the goddess Kali is worshipped. This temple was more popular among the Nairs. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36608.
The Thripyayar temple is located on the bank of the Theevra rivera and is dedicated to Rama, another incarnation of Vishnu. This temple is famous for its meenoottu ritual, which involves the worship of nature by feeding fish in the river. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36599.
Sree Vadakkumnathan Shiva Temple
Built in the 9th Century CE, the Vadakkumnathan is one of Kerala's oldest temples. According to Namboothiri legend, it was the first temple to be created and consecrated by Parasurama, who then entrusted the establishment in the care of the Namboothiris.
This temple is situated a few metres away from the Brahmaswam Madham, where young Namboothiris who have completed their Samavarthanam would reside for an additional year. In this period, they underwent intensive training in recitation of the Rig Vēda, and became apprentices for the care of the temple. Students trained in the Yajur Vēda instead went to the Peruvanam Shiva Temple.
Since the 1940s, changes to the landscape around the temple and Vēdic school has tempered the rigid travel and study schedules that early 20th century Namboothiris abided by.
The Vadakkumnathan has since shed its caste-laws for entry, and now welcomes a much larger audience. This temple also hosts the Thrissur Pooram, which is considered as one of Asia's largest festivals.
The Thrissur Pooram at the Vadakkumnathan temple. Video by Kerala Tourism YouTube channel. June 2023.
While temples across Kerala are now administered by government based socio-religious trusts (rather than Namboothiri families), it is still central to the community's traditions and faith.
One of the Gopurams (entrance gateways) of the Sree Vadakkumnathan temple. Elephant droppings are visible in the foreground, suggesting that the Pooram been held not long before Iyer produced this image. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36602.
The Vadakkumnathan from a similar angle. The temple has undergone cosmetic renovations in the last 125 years. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Peruvanam
Mahadeva Shiva Temple
Photograph of the temple recreated from the same angle, nearly 125 years later. Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
The 1500 year old Peruvanam temple was also of similar significance. Many priests, children, and visitors in Iyer's photographs are seen posing inside this temple.
Cows graze on the fields in front of Peruvanam Mahadeva Shiva Temple. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36612.
Illams and Manas
Many of Kerala's significant temples lie in the 64 gramams (villages) that Parasurama created for the Namboothiris to govern.
Within these gramams, generations of Namboothiri families lived in large estates known as manas and illams. These houses were situated next to holy sites and rivers, and were flanked by agricultural land that the Namboothiris leased to tenants such as the Nairs and local aristocracy.
Namboothiri estates can still be seen throughout Kerala, and many have become tourist attractions. They are constructed out of laterite bricks, clay tiles, and various woods. Their extensive compounds contain orchards and medicinal plants, large ponds for bathing and prayer, multiple wells, and lodges with separate dining halls for servants and visitors. Segregated wings for bachelors and women existed in most estates. Houses always faced the rising sun of the east, according to Vastu, and used to have dedicated rooms to be used for life events such as childbirth and marriage.
Namboothiri and Nair estates both have a nadumuttam or large open courtyard in the middle of the house, which serves as a spot for rituals and the accumulation of cosmic energy.
A Namboothiri man sat in his illam's nadumuttam performs a votive ritual during the Onam festival. Photographs taken by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. September 2025.
A Namboothiri man sat in his illam's nadumuttam performs a votive ritual during the Onam festival. Photographs taken by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. September 2025.
A Namboothiri man sat in his illam's nadumuttam performs a votive ritual during the Onam festival. Photographs taken by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. September 2025.
A Namboothiri man sat in his illam's nadumuttam performs a votive ritual during the Onam festival. Photographs taken by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. September 2025.
A Namboothiri man sat in his illam's nadumuttam performs a votive ritual during the Onam festival. Photographs taken by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. September 2025.
A Namboothiri man sat in his illam's nadumuttam performs a votive ritual during the Onam festival. Photographs taken by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. September 2025.
In this photograph, Namboothiri children pose in front of a house featuring a mural. The artwork, which depicts a decorated soothrotta, monkeys entwining hands, and hunters brandishing weapons, suggests the house belonged to a Chekavar family, a warrior sub-caste of the Tiyyar people. Murals advertised the Chekavars' availability and proficiency in combat, as they were levied by feuding kings or lords (including Namboothiris) to settle disputes in battle.
Though western articles of clothing such as pants (as seen in the murals) were uncommon in early 20th century Kerala, the union of multiple Chekavar families with the Dutch likely influenced their attire.
It is possible that the visiting Namboothiri children belonged to a family who patronized the Chekavar.
Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36598.
The Nairs
The Caste of Warriors and Scholars
Teenaged or young adult Nair women seated on a mat. One of the women poses with a tanpura—a lute-like 4-string instrument. Nair women occupied a prominent position in Malayali society as a result of their education in the arts, sciences, languages, and literature. It was expected of many Nair girls to become prodigious in music, visual arts, and writing. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36591.
Teenaged or young adult Nair women seated on a mat. One of the women poses with a tanpura—a lute-like 4-string instrument. Nair women occupied a prominent position in Malayali society as a result of their education in the arts, sciences, languages, and literature. It was expected of many Nair girls to become prodigious in music, visual arts, and writing. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36591.
The Nairs*, for a large part of Kerala's history were rulers of small kingdoms across the Malabar coast. Their kingdoms established some of the earliest extensive trade networks to the Middle East and East Asia. In medieval Kerala, this caste formed the chief militia of the region.
The 18th century marked the migration of the community from Northern Malabar to Central Kerala, and the decline of their military pursuits. Notable reasons for this change in status quo included Tipu Sultan's Islamic conquest and genocide of Nairs, followed by the dominion of Malabar by the East India Company, and the subsequent dissolution of Nairs' right to participate in the army by the British Empire. By the 19th century, prolonged confrontations with the British led to the final disbandment of any extant Nair kingdoms.
*also spelled as Nayar
Nairs were reputed for their history of versatile occupations, which includes kings, royal scribes, musicians, and writers. In the 20th century, they turned to administrative roles in the government, and became affluent feudal lords. They pursued the sciences, fine arts, philosophy, education, and law, and became reputed for their scholarly, political, and artistic interests. Many Nairs of modern Kerala uphold the ancestral tradition of pursuing eclectic careers.
Matriliny, Tharavads, and Thavazhis
Unlike the Namboothiris, Nair women enjoyed the highest privileges within their caste. These included the freedom to travel, and the rights to education, marital choice, and inheritance. Female ancestors were venerated and honoured in thavazhis—a joint family structure which involved all descendants of one female ancestor living together in a tharavad.
Thavazhis formed upon the partition of the family into separate units (often due to sibling rivalry or unwieldy family size). In this case, an additional tharavad was built for the new thavazhi to inhabit.
Nairs attached the title of their house to their surnames. This practice persists among modern Nairs and enables tracing one's ancestry to specific members, an estate, or a region within Kerala. The title of the tharavad also serves as a mark of recognition to Nairs for any affiliation it may have with notable persons, professions, or socio-political involvement in the history and development of the nation.
A three-storeyed Nair tharavad. Photograph from family records, provided by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. c. 1960.
A group of Nair women and girls pose in the courtyard of a tharavad. The girls in the middle are dressed in imported shirts with patterned skirts, which at the time indicated diaspora in the family and assumed a display of affluence. Nair families in the 20th century had begun establishing themselves in Burma and Penang. Two girls are wearing a cropped blouse, or the rowka, which in many families indicated recent brides. The surrounding women are dressed in the traditional mundum neriyatum. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36584.
A group of Nair women and girls pose in the courtyard of a tharavad. The girls in the middle are dressed in imported shirts with patterned skirts, which at the time indicated diaspora in the family and assumed a display of affluence. Nair families in the 20th century had begun establishing themselves in Burma and Penang. Two girls are wearing a cropped blouse, or the rowka, which in many families indicated recent brides. The surrounding women are dressed in the traditional mundum neriyatum. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36584.
Marumakkathayam
The almost exclusive feature of women in Iyer's photographs of the Nairs stands in sharp contrast with his male Namboothiri subjects, a likely ode to the Nairs' matrilineality and centrality of female family members.
Nair family system was comprised of a senior male head known as the Karnovar. The Karnovar was entitled to the full possession of the property and its management, and oversaw the matrilineal law of succession known as marumakkathayam. Under marumakkathayam, the responsibility of a child was with its maternal uncle rather than with its father. In this system, the child inherited assets passed from the maternal uncle and mother, including the family surname. All children born to Nair women belonged only to their mother's estate and title. Karnovars often married into wealthy families so that their own children would be cared for by their wife's brother or uncle.
Family Life Post-1975
A rise in invidious actions from Karnovars in the 20th century—favouring their own progeny over nieces and nephews—led to rising family disputes and more frequent partitions. In 1975, widespread juridic upheaval in Nair families led to The Joint Family Abolition Act which annulled marumakkathayam. In the 21st century, many Nairs—especially of aristocratic lineage—continue to practice matrilineal inheritance favouring the mother, despite having nuclear families and no officially recognised Karnovar.
A Nair family portrait. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36593.
A Nair family portrait. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36593.
(1) A Nair family portrait. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishnan Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36593. (2) Line of inheritance chart under marumakkathayam.
(1) A Nair family portrait. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishnan Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36593. (2) Line of inheritance chart under marumakkathayam.
As a result of urbanisation, rampant divisive partitions, abolition of joint ownership, dissolution of large families, and emigration of Nairs, many tharavads can be found abandoned and in various states of disrepair throughout Kerala.
Photographs provided by author's research participant Arjun Balu Kizhakkepat Menon. 2025.
Photographs provided by author's research participant Arjun Balu Kizhakkepat Menon. 2025.
SUB-CASTES & INTERMEDIARIES
While sub-divisions within the Nair caste were formed on the basis of wealth, it was largely determined by a family's inherited occupation and ancestry.
A Velichappadu (oracle) poses with his sickle and ritual ornaments. Various members of the Ambalavasi sub-caste became Velichappadus at Kerala's temples. They were and continue to be considered as an integral part of South Indian Hindu faith for their role as a channel between deities and temple-goers. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.58095.ACH2.
A Velichappadu (oracle) poses with his sickle and ritual ornaments. Various members of the Ambalavasi sub-caste became Velichappadus at Kerala's temples. They were and continue to be considered as an integral part of South Indian Hindu faith for their role as a channel between deities and temple-goers. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.58095.ACH2.
The historical union of Namboothiris and Nairs, amidst those with other castes, gave rise to a sub-caste of the Ambalavasi or "temple dwellers", which formed a group that occupied an intermediate position between the Brahmins and Nairs. While they were not of the same economic and social standing as their two ancestral communities, Ambalavasis could still be affiliated with temples.
Pollution laws that the Namboothiris and Nairs practised towards other castes did not apply as strongly to them. Some Ambalavasis identified as a lower sub-division of the Nairs, and provided a variety of important spiritual services to Nairs and Namboothiris. These services ranged from oracles to construction.
The shamanic Velichappadu channels the goddess through dance at the Chamundikavu Bhagavathi Temple in Kerala. Video by V&V Vishual Media YouTube channel. April 2024.
Kirriyam or Kirriyattil Nairs
Kirriyattil Nairs were the highest ranked sub-division and formed the landed and martial nobility. Mythology alludes to them being demi-god descendants of the Nāgas, a race of divine half-serpents. "Kirriyam" translates roughly to "self-sufficient agricultural household", and in some parts of Kerala these Nairs were considered as equals to the Namboothiris in social status and pollution laws.
Example of a Kirriyam Nair tharavad. Like Namboothiri houses, tharavads were built in ode and adherence to Hindu cosmological beliefs. At the start of the 20th century, large tharavads housed up to 80 family members at a time. Today, after repeat partitions and urbanisation, these numbers have trickled down to 2 or 3 members. While many houses lay abandoned, some are cared for, lived in, or turned into resorts. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Example of a Kirriyam Nair tharavad. Like Namboothiri houses, tharavads were built in ode and adherence to Hindu cosmological beliefs. At the start of the 20th century, large tharavads housed up to 80 family members at a time. Today, after repeat partitions and urbanisation, these numbers have trickled down to 2 or 3 members. While many houses lay abandoned, some are cared for, lived in, or turned into resorts. Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Kirriyattil Nairs were wealthy and owned large tharavads with extensive kollayas, as seen in these photographs. One of the eldest male members pictured here was likely this family's Karnovar.
(Background) A Kirriyam Nair joint family poses in front of their tharavad. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.167112.
Illathu Nairs or Illakar
Illakar were attendants of the Namboothiris. They lived a semi-Brahmin lifestyle. Female Illakar attendants known as vishalis represented antharjanams by proxy through the adornment of Namboothiri attire. They were present at life events, such as weddings and temple festivals—which Namboothiri women were prohibited from.
Illakar often inherited jewellery and illams from their liege at the end of their service period, and some entered into marriage with Namboothiri men.
Illathu Nair women dressed as antharjanams at a Namboothiri bride's estate. They are holding the ashtamangalyam—a plate containing 8 sacred items including a lamp, and natural materials such as plantain and betel—that would be waved in front of the bridegroom's face as an act of welcoming him and his procession of groomsmen. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36586.
The Namboothiri bridegroom's procession (centre) is accompanied by an Illathu Nair (right) carrying ritual accessories. The Nair walks at a distance to avoid polluting the party. The Namboothiri marriage ceremony begins when the party is welcomed at the bride's house by Illathu women dressed as antharjanams.
Note: Institutionalised primogeniture among the Namboothiris prevented younger sons from marrying Namboothiri women. These members often married Kirriyam or Illathu Nair women instead, thus ending a lineage of Namboothiris as their progeny would (according to matrilineal inheritance followed by their wives) become Nairs.
A Namboothiri bridegroom and his procession of groomsmen. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36562.ACH2.
The Chakkala or Chakkan Nairs
Chakkans formed an Ambalavasi sub-caste of Nairs who were oil pressers, makers of agricultural produce, and traders by occupation.
Chakkala Nairs pressing oil. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36614.
Cattle-driven method of oil production in a traditional mill. Caste based occupations have since become mostly obsolete. In modern Kerala, members of various communities engage in professions that were once exclusive to certain castes. Video by Country Food Cooking YouTube channel. July 2022.
Chakkala Nairs thrashing wheat flour or corn. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36585.
Mārār
The Mārārs formed an Ambalavasi sub-caste of Nairs who were musicians by divine right. They played the chenda drum in temples during festivities, performances, and rituals. The Mārārs had further hierarchical divisions within the sub-caste, with those higher up affiliating with temple services, and those at the bottom becoming barbers or funerary priests.
Mārār drummers play the chenda drum around Nair women during sriveli, a daily temple procession which involves circumambulating the temple grounds while carrying an idol of the deity out of the sanctum sanctorum. Namboothiri priests can be seen behind the women, holding idols decorated in fabric and ornaments. This procession is accompanied by trumpet and percussion music. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.58088.ACH2
Kettukalyanam
A Symbolic Marriage
Nair women underwent two forms of marriage. The first, kettukalyanam, was a week long symbolic or performative ceremony that girls underwent before puberty. The groom and bride parted ways at the end of the ceremony. They were not obliged to but could reconvene at a future time if they wished to enter into Sambandham—the nuptial ceremony that united the two parties—provided the girl has undergone the thirandhukalyanam (celebration of womanhood) after her kettukalyanam.
Family members holding ashtamangalyam trays with offerings of sandalwood, saffron, and jasmine welcome veiled girls to their kettukalyanam ceremony. The kettukalyanam would be an annual event, so multiple girls who are of age could undergo the ceremony together. Girls who have already been married are seen standing in the background (covering the chest was an indicator of a married woman in many families). Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36587.
Young girls who had undergone the kettukalyanam wore the thali pendant on a black or gold string around their necks.
A Nair family portrait. Widows pose on either side of married women. A boy and three girls sit cross-legged on the mat in front of them. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36587.
The modern Nair community believes the defunct kettukalyanam developed from a historical tradition of preventing the shameful status of widowhood for those whose husbands perished in battle.
Towards the beginning of the 20th century, taboos around widowhood relaxed across most castes, and women were seldom ostracized for it. In this family photograph, married women are flanked by two widows who declare their status by abstaining from adornments such as the pottu dot on the forehead, the thali chain, thoda ear plugs, and finger or toe rings. However, they continue to wear the kaap bangle and thala anklet as part of their Nair identity.
A form of the thoda earring fitted with rubies and emeralds. Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
A form of the thoda earring fitted with rubies and emeralds. Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Gold thala anklets. Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Gold thala anklets. Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Sambandham
The Nairs had no legally recognised system of marriage or divorce before the early 20th century. Roughly translating to "alliance", sambandham was a semi-permanent union which symbolized the beginning of a relationship between an adult Nair woman and man. The "marriage" could be terminated by either party at any point. Children born from the relationship would be raised by the bride's family, according to marumakkathayam.
Nair men and women could have multiple sambandhams throughout their lives with no obligation to commit to the relationship. However, a large number of Nairs pursued lifetime union. Families began to recognise legal marriage around 1915.
A Nair bride with her bridesmaids. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36592.
Like the Namboothiris, the Nairs had an ornament of
immense spiritual significance called the nāgapadam.
Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
The gold nāgapadam is designed to resemble the hood of a snake and is worn as an ode to the Nairs' Nāga origins and continuing practice of serpent worship.
In the early 20th century, nāgapadams were largely made of gold, whereas modern variations contain precious gems. Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
In the early 20th century, nāgapadams were largely made of gold, whereas modern variations contain precious gems. Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
A Nair family's saarpa kaavu (serpent shrine) is a thriving ecosystem complete with peepal, banyan, and a variety of medicinal plants. In the centre is a termite mound inhabited by various species of snakes, and to the right are stone-carved figures of Nāga deities. For Nairs, the shrine is an important aspect of nature worship. Thus, the upkeep of the grove's ecology assumes the most significant display of devotion.
Photograph by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
The kasumala was popular among Nairs and Namboothiris. It consists of numerous gold coins with religious motifs—often depicting Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth—strung together. It was worn as a symbol of affluence.
A kasumala ("kasu" translates to money, and "mala" to necklace). Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
A kasumala ("kasu" translates to money, and "mala" to necklace). Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Various necklaces had a choker-like addigai style (also known as pathakam). Many Nairs wore this article as an homage to their royal ancestry, referencing the addigai's popularity within ancient Kerala's ruling class.
The pendant of an addigai necklace. Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
The pendant of an addigai necklace. Owned and photographed by Devaki Vadakepat Menon. 2025.
Board of Nair jewellery. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36615.
Board of Nair jewellery. Photograph by L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer. c. 1901-1908. MAA P.36615.
Other ornaments that Iyer photographed include (from top to bottom) mukkollakallu, thoda earrings, mukkuthi nose ornament (top right), thalikootam, poothali, manimala, pulinakkam mala (left), nagapadam (bottom left), kuzhalmothiram, kingini mala, arapattam waist belt (bottom centre). There were overlaps between the ornaments worn by both Nair and Namboothiri women, though reasons for wearing them differed.
A century later, Iyer's photographs remain one of the most dignified and crucial documentations of an era of life in Kerala.
These images secure a history that would have vanished with the final generation to have experienced it.
View L. K. Ananthakrishna Iyer's photographs of the architecture and people of Cochin and Mysore in MAA's collections portal online.